The Sangam Age

Tolkappiyam

Reason — Tolkappiyam is the earliest available work on Tamil grammar. It is an important literary source of the Sangam Age and also provides valuable information about the society, culture, and political life of the ancient Tamils.

Uraiyur : Silk fabrics

Reason — Uraiyur was a main centre for the manufacture of cotton fabrics, not silk, so this pair is wrong. The other pairs are correct — local markets were known as Angadis, the day market as Nalangadi, and the evening bazaar as Allangadi.

Rome

Reason — Foreign trade with Rome brought significant Roman currency in gold and silver, and the Romans paid in gold for the goods imported from the Southern kingdoms.

Thiruvalluvar

Reason — Tirukkural, a classic composition of 1330 Tamil couplets, was authored by Thiruvalluvar, a Tamil poet said to have lived any time between the 2nd and 6th century CE.

Silappadikaram

Reason — Silappadikaram was the earliest and the greatest of the epics of the Sangam Age. It is the tragic story of the merchant Kovalan of Puhar and his wife Kannagi.

Manimegalai

Reason — Inscriptions, Herostones and Megaliths are archaeological sources of the Sangam Age, whereas Manimegalai is a literary source, being one of the two great Tamil epics. Hence Manimegalai is the odd one out.

Silappadikaram

Reason — Manimegalai is the story of Manimegalai, the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi of Silappadikaram, who becomes a Buddhist nun to preach the doctrine.

(i), (ii), (iii)

Reason — All three statements are correct. Herostones were erected for brave persons who sacrificed their lives; some lost their lives fighting the dangers of wild animals while reclaiming forest land; and most of the herostones bear inscriptions on them mentioning the heroes' names, families and regions.

(i), (ii), (iii) and (iv)

Reason — All four statements are correct. Silk clothes were produced in the Tamil country, the people of the Kurinji region exchanged honey with the Neydal region for fish and salt, local markets were known as Angadis, and rice was the staple food during the Sangam period.

Chera

Reason — Chera country was famous for jackfruit, along with spices like ginger, cardamom, cinnamon, pepper and turmeric.

These were erected for the heroes who sacrificed their lives for safeguarding the villages and their culture

Reason — The picture shows Herostones, which were erected for the heroes who sacrificed their lives to the cause of safeguarding the villages and their culture.

All of these

Reason — All the statements are correct. The Romans imported the pearls of the Pandya kingdom, which were highly valued in Rome; gemstones, ivory, sandalwood and silk were exported to Greece and Rome; and the Southern kingdoms exported spices and pepper to Rome, Greece and other countries.

(B) is the reason for (A)

Explanation — Both statements are individually true — Silappadikaram was the earliest and the greatest epic of the Sangam Age (A), and it marks the beginning of the Kannagi cult as Kannagi avenges the death of her husband and becomes a goddess (B).

Tirukkural

Reason — Tirukkural is a classic composition of 1330 Tamil couplets arranged into 3 sections and 133 chapters. It covers many aspects of life, from ruling a country to ploughing a piece of land, and throws light on the lives of the ancient Tamils.

Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)

Explanation — Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct explanation of (A). The herostones were erected for the heroes who sacrificed their lives to the cause of safeguarding the villages and their culture; this very sacrifice is the reason such brave persons were remembered through herostones.

Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)

Explanation — Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A). The Sangam Age ended around the 3rd century CE, and the dynasties of the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas persisted into later historical periods, notably the medieval period. However, the continued rule of these dynasties is not the reason for the end of the Sangam Age.

Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the capital city of the Chola kingdom, was significant during the Sangam Age for trade.

Tirukkural was authored by Thiruvalluvar, the Tamil poet who is said to have lived any time between the 2nd and 6th century CE.

Kannagi, the wife of Kovalan from Puhar in Silappadikaram, was hailed for her chastity.

The herostones were erected for the heroes who sacrificed their lives to the cause of safeguarding the villages and their culture. Most of the herostones bear inscriptions often mentioning the names of the heroes, their families, regions, and other details.

During the Sangam Age, records were inscribed on stones and copper plates.

The first capital of the Chola kingdom was Uraiyur.

Appam or rice cake soaked in milk and the flesh of tortoises were considered luxuries in the Sangam Age.

Kaveripattinam (Puhar) was a bustling port city founded by King Karikalan, which later became the new Chola capital city. This city became a hub for trade and cultural exchange, attracting merchants from faroff lands.

Ariyappadaikadantha Neduncheliyan, a Pandya ruler, is associated with the legend of Silappadikaram.

The Chera kings held titles such as Vanavar, Villavar, and Malaiyar.

The day market was called Nalangadi, and the evening market was called Allangadi.

Tolkappiyam refers to the four social divisions prevalent in Sangam society, namely: Athanar, Arasar, Vaisigar, and Vellalar.

Puhar and Madurai are significant in Sangam literature because Puhar was a major port city and Chola capital, known for its trade and prosperity. Madurai was the Pandya capital and the center of the Tamil Sangam assemblies, where much of Sangam literature was composed. Both cities reflect the cultural, political, and economic life of ancient Tamilakam.

The Kallanai Dam (Grand Anicut) across the Kaveri River, is an engineering marvel still in use. It ensures effective irrigation and supports agriculture.

The Pandyas used the fish emblem, which symbolized their strong connection to maritime trade and the sea.

(a) The grammatical treatise like the 'Tolkappiyam' not only gives the inflection and syntax of words and sentences but also includes classification of habitats, animals, plants and human beings. The discussion on human emotion and interaction is particularly significant.

(b) The Tolkappiyam has been instrumental in understanding the evolution of the Tamil language as well as forming an idea of the literary and cultural aspects of the Tamil society.

The rulers of ancient Tamilakam, even those of the Pallava dynasty, gave land grants to the brahman saints and kept the records in the temples in the form of inscriptions on stone and copper plates.

The chief occupation of the people was agriculture. The ancient Tamils cultivated a wide range of crops such as rice, sugarcane, millets, pepper, grams, coconut, beans, cotton, plantain, tamarind and sandalwood. Paddy was the main crop. Chera country was famous for jackfruit, and spices like ginger, cardamom, cinnamon, pepper and turmeric. Spices constituted major items of export. Irrigation through rivers, tanks and wells was used for cultivation. Cotton was grown on large scale.

(a) Sangam literature mentions notable Pandya rulers like Mudhukudumi Peruvazhthi, known for his sacrifices, and Ariyappadaikadantha Neduncheliyan, linked to the Silappadikaram legend.

(b) Thalaiyalanganathu Nedunchezhiyan defeated a Chera-Chola coalition.

(a) Feasts were a popular form of collective entertainment in Sangam society, often organized for social bonding. Other common forms included music, dance, cock-fighting, goat-fighting, gambling and wrestling.

(b) In Sangam Age villages, feasts were commonly organised for collective entertainment and social bonding. A key custom was feeding guests, as eating without a guest was considered unsatisfying, reflecting the importance of hospitality in village life.

The Cheras exported spices like black pepper, gemstones, ivory, sandalwood, cotton, and silk with many other countries, which contributed to the Chera kingdom's prominence in international trade.

During the Sangam Age, women enjoyed a respectable position in society. Chastity was considered their greatest virtue, as illustrated by Kannagi. Women had the freedom to choose their life partners. Widows were not allowed to remarry or inherit property. Women studied religious scriptures and many became poets, such as Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar and Kakkaipadiniyar. Women dancers were also patronised by the nobility.

(a) The Chola kingdom, also known as Cholamandalam, covered present-day Thanjavur and Tiruchirappalli districts. Situated northeast of the Pandya territory, between the Pennar and Vellar rivers, it flourished in the fertile valley of the Kaveri river, renowned for its abundant water resources and agricultural prosperity.

(b) Karikalan, the most prominent early Chola ruler, is remembered for his leadership and achievements. He defeated the Chera and Pandya kings at the Battle of Venni and expanded his kingdom beyond Kanchipuram. His construction of the Kallanai Dam (Grand Anicut) across the Kaveri River, an engineering marvel still in use, ensured effective irrigation and supported agriculture.

(c) The Cholas were patrons of art, literature, and architecture. Their temples, adorned with intricate sculptures and towering gopurams, served as centres of worship, culture, and economic activity, showcasing their dedication to Tamil heritage.

(a) Sangam literature describes the rule and achievements of the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas, giving insights into their administration, warfare, diplomacy, and patronage of arts. It also highlights the cultural life, including festivals, social customs, trade, and entertainment, showcasing a rich and organized society.

(b) The Sangam literature varying from almost 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE was composed by many poets including Thiruvalluvar, the author of Tirukkural. All these poems composed during the Sangam period are important as they deal with every aspect of Tamil life during this period of about 1000 years or even more. From their study we come to know about love, war, governance, bereavement and joys of the Tamil people. They give a true picture of the social, economic and cultural life of the people.

(c) The main themes are love, war, governance, bereavement and joys of the Tamil people. These themes are important as they reflect the emotional and social values of the time, balancing the inner experiences of individuals with the duties and achievements in society.

(a) The dynasties of the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas persisted in later historical periods, notably during the medieval period. The decline of these dynasties was due to internal conflicts, succession disputes, frequent wars, and external invasions. Over time, political instability and loss of control over trade routes also weakened their power.

(b) The Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas promoted trade with foreign lands, making Tamilakam a major trading hub. They patronized poets and scholars, resulting in a rich body of Tamil literature. Their support for temples, art, and architecture helped shape Tamil cultural identity, which left a lasting impact on Tamil society.

(c) Sangam literature, along with classical works like Tirukkural by Thiruvalluvar, provides important insights into various aspects of life of the ancient Tamils. The Tamil Grammatical works and Tamil Epics have proved very useful in forming an idea of the social, economic and cultural life of the ancient Tamils. These poems and texts serve as key sources for understanding the legacy of the Chera, Chola, and Pandya dynasties, including their governance, values, and contributions to Tamil society.

(a) The given picture shows a Megalith.

(b) The megaliths were erected as burial grounds. They were used to mark burial sites and sometimes arranged in a circular pattern. Some had inscriptions, which help us understand different aspects of the social life of people during the Sangam Age.

(c) Megaliths have been found in different parts of the Tamil country ruled by the Chera, Chola, and Pandya dynasties. Some megaliths were arranged in a circular pattern, and a few had inscriptions engraved on them. These inscriptions are important as they help us form an idea of different aspects of the social life of people during the Sangam Age.

There were many key factors that made the Sangam Age an economically prosperous period in Tamil history.

1. Thriving Agriculture — Fertile land and irrigation through rivers, tanks and wells supported agriculture. The ancient Tamils cultivated rice, sugarcane, millets, pepper, grams, coconut, beans, cotton, plantain and tamarind. Paddy was the main crop.
2. Trade and Commerce — Local markets were known as Angadis. Day markets (Nalangadi) and evening bazaars (Allangadi) existed in port towns. Internal and overseas trade flourished with Rome, Greece, Egypt, China and South-East Asia.
3. Port cities — Puhar (Kaveripattinam) was a bustling port city of the Cholas. Korkai was the chief port of the Pandya kingdom. Naura, Tyndis and Muziris were important ports on the west coast.
4. Stable rule — The Chera, Chola, and Pandya dynasties provided stable governance and patronized trade and commerce.
5. Industry and Crafts — Weaving and spinning were important crafts during the Sangam period, with Uraiyur and Madurai as main centers for producing and exporting fine cotton fabrics. Other crafts included carpentry, blacksmithing, goldsmithing, pottery, along with fishing and hunting as significant occupations.