Medieval India

All of the above

Reason — The inscriptions of the Cholas are found in all the three forms i.e., copper-plate grants, stone inscriptions and inscriptions made on the walls and pillars of temples.

All of the above

Reason — The chief features of Chola temples include their spacious courtyards and massive vimanas or towers, the audience hall (mandapa) where people gathered for prayers, and the images of deities kept in the main shrine.

Garbhagriha

Reason — The main shrine of a Chola temple, where the images of gods and goddesses were kept, was known as the garbhagriha.

All of the above

Reason — The inscriptions provide information about Chola administration, public registrations such as records of sales and mortgages of village lands, as well as taxation and land revenue.

Vijayalaya - Parantaka I - Rajaraja I

Reason — In chronological order, Vijayalaya established Chola rule first, followed by Parantaka I, and later by Rajaraja I.

Malaysia

Reason — The Cholas held territories including Mysore, Sri Lanka and areas up to Odisha, but Malaysia never formed a part of the Chola kingdom.

Bengal

Reason — Rajendra Chola adopted the title Gangaikonda to commemorate his victory over Mahipala, the king of Bengal, whom the Chola army defeated after marching up to the Ganga river.

Mandalams, Valanadu and nadu

Reason — The Chola empire was divided into mandalams or provinces, which were further divided into valanadu and nadu.

Rajaraja I

Reason — It was under the rule of Rajaraja I that the Cholas became the supreme power in Southern India. He attacked the Pandyas, Cheras and parts of Mysore and greatly extended Chola dominance.

Ur : landless

Reason — The ur was the common assembly of villages where land was held by all classes of people, and not the landless.

Overseas trade

Reason — The revenue of the Chola kingdom came from taxes on land, taxes on the produce of the land, and tax on trade. Overseas trade did not contribute to the revenue.

Garbhagriha

Reason — The garbhagriha is the sanctum at the heart of the temple where the main deity is installed.

Lost-wax technique

Reason — The Chola bronze sculptures were created using the lost-wax technique, which allowed great flexibility and delicate detailing.

Cosmic dancer

Reason — The most celebrated Chola bronze image, Nataraja, depicts Shiva as the cosmic dancer, symbolising the rhythm of creation and destruction.

Fresco

Reason — The Chola murals were painted on lime-plastered surfaces using the fresco technique.

(A) is true but (R) is false.

Explanation — These kingdoms were located south of the Krishna river.

(A) and (R) are independent of each other.

Explanation — The Brihadeshwara Temple, also known as Rajarajeswaram Temple, is indeed the first known instance of a royal portrait in a temple. It has a portrait of Rajaraja Chola. The temple has been declared as a World Heritage site by UNESCO.

(A) is true but (R) is false.

Explanation — Vijayalaya established Chola rule during the middle of ninth century in Tamil land, with Thanjavur as capital.

(A) is the reason for (R)

Explanation — The Chola army defeated Mahipala, the king of Bengal. To commemorate this victory, Rajendra Chola adopted the title Gangaikonda and built his new capital, called Gangaikonda-Cholapuram.

(R) is the reason for (A)

Explanation — Shrivijaya was defeated by Rajendra Chola. As a result, the trade continued with South-East Asia and South China, enriching the Chola kingdom.

(R) is the reason for (A)

Explanation — The Cholas established a powerful system of local self-government by empowering village assemblies like the ur, where local residents directly managed and decided village administration matters.

(A) is true but (R) is false.

Explanation — The students learnt their lessons in two languages, i.e., Tamil and Sanskrit.

Two significant features of inscriptions for providing information about the Cholas are:

1. These inscriptions tell us about the Chola administration. For example, the Uttaramerur inscription gives information on the village administration, taxation and land revenue.
2. Some inscriptions have royal orders on taxation and land revenue, resolutions of village assemblies, judgements delivered against persons guilty of theft, murder and other crimes.

Chola ruler Vijayalaya established the rule of the Cholas.

The capital of his empire was Thanjavur.

The Indian Ocean trade in textiles, spices, and gemstones brought immense wealth from Arab merchants to the coasts of Kerala, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives. Recognizing the vital importance of controlling these maritime trade routes, the Chola king Rajaraja launched a powerful naval expedition to assert his dominance. He successfully attacked both the Maldives and Sri Lanka, ultimately conquering the northern half of Sri Lanka.

Two great rulers of the Chola dynasty were:

1. Rajaraja I
2. Rajendra Chola

Two achievements of Rajendra Chola were:

1. He invaded and annexed the whole island of Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka was not able to free herself from the Chola control for another 50 years.
2. His army defeated Mahipala, king of Bengal. He built a new capital called Gangaikonda-cholapuram which he adorned with beautiful temples and magnificent palaces.

The new capital built by Rajendra Chola was Gangaikonda-cholapuram. It is situated in Tamil Nadu.

The Cholas built a powerful navy to conquer Sri Lanka and the Maldives to dominate maritime trade. When the Shrivijaya kingdom began disrupting Indian trade routes through the Straits of Malacca, merchants appealed to Rajendra Chola for assistance. He deployed a massive naval force, defeated the Shrivijaya king, and successfully secured the trade routes connecting India to Southeast Asia and Southern China.

The Chola administration was strong and effective because of following reasons:

1. The King was the pivot of administration and all the authority vested in his hands.
2. The King often went on tours in order to keep a check on the administration.
3. The Cholas were good administrators. The villages were not ruled by any government official but they were self governed by the villagers themselves. The villages had three types of assemblies, namely, the Ur, the Sabha and the Nagaram.

The two languages promoted by the Cholas were:

1. Sanskrit
2. Tamil

Two features of temples built by the Cholas were:

1. Massive Vimanas or towers.
2. Spacious courtyards.

The Brihadeshwara (or Rajarajeshwar) Temple, built by Rajaraja I and dedicated to Lord Shiva, is the finest specimen of Chola architecture and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This splendid monument features a massive 66-meter vimana (tower) crowned by an 80-ton single-stone dome. Famous for its exquisite sculptures and decorative moldings, it stands as the most beautiful example of Tamil temple architecture.

The gateway of the temple is known as 'gopuram'.
The another feature of temples built during the Chola Period was massive towers known as 'vimanas' and spacious courtyards.

(a) The forms of chola inscriptions are:

1. Copper-plates grants.
2. Stone inscriptions.
3. Inscription made on the walls and pillars of the temples.

(b) The special feature of the inscriptions was that it mentioned the main achievements of the the king and his reign.

The idea was conceptualised by Rajaraja I.

The temple built by Rajaraja I was Brihadeshwara Temple.

(c) Built by Rajaraja I at Thanjavur, the Brihadeshwara (or Rajarajeshwara) Temple is a magnificent Shiva temple that stands as a premier example of Dravidian architecture. This historic monument features a 66-meter vimana crowned by an 80-ton monolithic stone dome, and it houses a gigantic 8.87-meter-high Shiva Lingam. Complemented by a Nandi Pavilion, a pillared portico, and a large assembly hall, the temple is highly significant for its extraordinary architectural beauty and historical importance.

(a) Taxes imposed by Cholas were taxes on land, taxes on the produce of the land and taxes on trade. The taxes on land were collected by the officials from the village councils. Part of revenue was kept for the king. The rest was used on the public works, on salaries of officials, on paying for the upkeep of the army and on the building of temples.

(b) The Cholas maintained a highly organized administration where absolute authority rested with the king, who was advised by a council of ministers. To ensure efficiency, power was decentralized across a structured hierarchy. The empire was divided into provinces (mandalams) governed by royal princes, which were further subdivided into Valanadus and Nadus. Crucially, villages enjoyed autonomous self-governance free from official interference, leaving the central government to focus on external defense, internal law and order, public prosperity, and cultural growth.

(c) The Chola villages featured three distinct, self-governing assemblies that united the community and provided popular strength:

1. The Ur - A general assembly for all land-owning classes.
2. The Sabha - An exclusive assembly for Brahmin landowners
3. The Nagaram - An assembly for dominant merchants and traders.

Land-owning villagers were elected by vote to these councils to discuss local life and work. Specialized committees managed all essential village affairs, including tax collection, dispute settlements, and water allocation.

(a) The king was the most important person in Chola administration. He was the pivot of administration and all the authority was vested in him. The king often went on tours in order to keep check on the administration. He had a council of ministers to advise him.

(b) The Cholas pioneered a system of autonomous village self-government run entirely by the locals rather than government officials. Administration was handled by three distinct assemblies i.e., the Ur (a general assembly for all land-owning classes), the Sabha (an exclusive assembly for Brahmin landowners), and the Nagaram (an assembly for merchants and traders). Land-owning villagers were elected by vote to these councils to manage local affairs and unify the community. Specialized committees took charge of essential daily duties, including tax collection, dispute resolution, and water allocation.

(c) Beyond being places of worship, Chola temples served as vital social hubs where communities gathered together. They were the largest employers after the state, providing a livelihood to a vast workforce for whom they provided food, clothing, housing, healthcare, and education. Furthermore, the temples functioned as the primary educational institutions of the kingdom, with priests serving as local teachers and schools housed directly within the temple courtyards.

(a) Art and architecture prospered under the Chola rulers because of the following reasons:

1. The political stability, economic prosperity and strong administrative system that prevailed during the Chola period made this remarkable achievement possible.
2. Royal patronage played a major role, with rulers such as Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I building grand stone temples, bronze images, murals and inscriptions.
3. Art during the Chola period was closely intertwined with religion, especially Shaivism. Temples were not merely places of worship but functioned as centres of social, cultural and economic life, which further encouraged artistic activity.

(b) Three features of Chola temple architecture are:

1. Garbhagriha — At the heart of the temple lies the garbhagriha or sanctum, where the main deity is installed.
2. Vimana — Directly above the sanctum rises the vimana, a tall pyramidal tower that is the most striking feature of Chola temples. It is crowned by the shikhara, a dome-like structure, and finally topped with a kalasha, the symbolic finial.
3. Mandapa — In front of the sanctum is the ardha-mandapa, which leads to the spacious mandapa, a pillared hall used for rituals, assemblies and temple ceremonies. Surrounding the sanctum is the prakara, an enclosed corridor meant for circumambulation.

(c) The most celebrated Chola bronze image is the Nataraja, depicting Shiva as the cosmic dancer, created using the lost-wax technique. Its main features are:

1. In this form, Shiva holds a damru in one hand, symbolising the rhythm of creation, while agni or fire in another hand represents destruction.
2. One hand is shown in the abhaya mudra, assuring protection to devotees.
3. The raised foot signifies liberation or moksha, while the other foot crushes Apasmara, the dwarf symbolising ignorance.
4. Surrounding the figure is the prabhamandala, a circle of flames representing cosmic energy.

(a) The given temple is Brihadeshwara Temple, also known as Rajarajeshwara Temple. Chola King, Rajaraja I built this temple.It is located at Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu.

(b) The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva.

Two special features of this temple are:

1. The massive tower or Vimana of 66 metres height and a huge dome of 7.6 metres, carved out of a single block of stone.
2. A gigantic Shiva Lingam, cut in monolithic rock about 8.87 metres high.

(c) Given features of temples were known as:

1. Gateway - Gopuram
2. Shrine - Garbhagriha
3. Audience Hall - Mandapa
4. Towers - Vimana.

The Chola King Rajaraja I pioneered the practice of prefixing his inscriptions with his reign's major achievements, a tradition followed by his successors. These inscriptions were issued on durable, widely available copper plates for the following reasons:

1. Legal and Administrative Purposes — The copper-plate inscriptions served as legal and administrative documents that recorded land grants, tax exemptions, and privileges granted by the rulers. By documenting these rights, they established social and political order and helped resolve local disputes and conflicts.
2. Propaganda and Legitimacy — These copper-plate inscriptions promoted the rulers' achievements and established their political legitimacy. By documenting their military conquests, charitable works, and religious endowments, the Cholas successfully projected a powerful, positive image to both their contemporary subjects and future generations.
3. Religious Purposes — The Chola rulers were great patrons of Hinduism, and many copper-plate inscriptions recorded their religious endowments to temples and Brahmins. These inscriptions helped to establish the authority of the Chola rulers as protectors and patrons of the Hindu religion.
4. Historical Record — The copper-plate inscriptions served as a historical record of the Chola dynasty, documenting its genealogy, chronology, and major events. These inscriptions helped to preserve the memory of the Chola rulers and their achievements, as well as to provide valuable information to future generations of scholars and historians.

The multifaceted roles elevated the Chola temple from a simple place of worship into the ultimate center of social and civic life. These were -

1. Immense Wealth & Patronage - Backed by royal Chola patronage, the temples possessed vast economic resources in the form of extensive land holdings and gold.
2. Major Economic Hubs - They functioned as the largest employers after the state, providing a livelihood and essential support (food, clothing, housing) to a massive workforce.
3. Centers of Education - Temples served as the primary schools of the era, where local priests taught subjects like Sanskrit and Tamil directly in the temple courtyards.
4. Promoters of Culture & Art - They actively sponsored cultural activities, including music, dance, and drama, which helped preserve the arts and unite the community.
5. Social Welfare Providers - They operated essential welfare services, managing hospitals, orphanages, and shelters for the poor and homeless.
6. Judicial Centers - The temples acted as local administrative spaces where community disputes and conflicts were formally resolved.

Based on Kalki Krishnamurthy's 1955 novel, the movie presents a fictionalized yet historically grounded account of the glorious Chola kingdom, focusing on Arulmozhi Varman's journey to becoming Rajaraja I. While it incorporates exaggerated drama, romanticized elements, and fictional characters for cinematic storytelling rather than a 100% authentic depiction, the core plot is heavily backed by historical evidence meticulously researched and originally serialized by the Kalki magazine.

If I get a chance to change the script, few changes that I would like to introduce are:

1. More emphasis on administrative brilliance: The Chola kings developed a well-organized administrative system with village self-government. This aspect could be shown in greater depth to highlight how advanced their governance was for that time.

2. Focus on temple-building as cultural centers: The Brihadeshwara Temple built by Raja Raja Chola I was not just a religious site but a center for art, education, and culture. This could be used to reflect how deeply the Cholas promoted Shaivism and Tamil culture.

3. Expansion of naval expeditions: Rajendra Chola’s naval conquest to Southeast Asia (like Srivijaya) is a major historical achievement. This aspect was not explored in the film but could be added to show Chola influence beyond India.

4. Representation of social structure: The life of common people, artisans, traders, and women in the Chola period, as described in historical sources, could be given more space to show a balanced picture of rulers and the ruled.

Alauddin Khilji

Reason — While Qutbuddin Aibak initiated the construction of the base and Iltutmish added the next three storeys, and Feroz Shah Tughlaq later repaired the lightning-damaged top floor and added two new ones.

(ii); (i); (iii); (iv)

Reason — Qutbuddin Aibak founded the Slave dynasty and ruled first, followed by Alauddin Khilji of the Khilji dynasty. Ghazi Malik then took the title of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq and began the Tughlaq dynasty in 1320, and was succeeded by his son Muhammad Bin Tughlaq.

Gold, Silver, Copper

Reason — Under his market regulations Alauddin Khilji set up three markets at Delhi — one for food grains, one for costly cloth and one for horses, slaves and cattle.

Alauddin Khilji

Reason — Alauddin Khilji was the first ruler of Delhi to lay the foundation of a permanent standing army. He imported quality horses, introduced the branding of horses (dagh) and the identity-card system (chehra), and paid his soldiers in cash from the royal treasury.

Chehra

Reason — Just as the controller of the market was called the Shahna, the identity card given to every soldier was known as the Chehra.

(R) is the reason for (A)

Explanation — Emergence of small kingdoms in North India and lack of central strong power and unity was the reason of conquest by Turks.

(A) is true but (R) is false.

Explanation — The construction of Qutab Minar was started by Qutub-ud-din Aibak.

(R) is true but (A) is false.

Explanation — Jalaluddin Khilji was the founder of the Khilji dynasty. He was murdered by his nephew Alauddin Khilji. When Alauddin Khilji ascended the throne, he had to face a rebellion of Mongols. He got many of the Mongols massacred to crush the rebellion.

(A) is the reason for (R)

Explanation — Alauddin Khilji was the first ruler who laid the foundation of a permanent standing army. That's why he also introduced the system of Chehra i.e., giving a kind of identity card for every soldier to prevent corruption and ensure discipline.

Inscriptions giving information about the Sultanate can be found on coins, monuments, milestones and tombstones.

Two architectural features of Qutab Minar are:

1. It has five storeys tapering as they ascend. Each storey is separated from the other by projecting balcony.
2. The Minar is a circular tower about 13.8 metres in diameter at the base and tapers to the width of around 3 metres at the summit. It has a circular stairway of 379 steps leading to the top.

Two military reforms introduced by Alauddin Khilji were:

1. He imported quality horses and started the system of branding horses (dagh) so that the soldiers could not replace them with inferior quality horses.
2. He introduced the system of chehra which meant giving a kind of identity card for every soldier.

Alauddin Khilji was the first Sultan to launch a Deccan expedition under his commander, Malik Kafur, conquering the kingdoms of Devagiri, Warangal, Dwarasamudra and Madurai. Realizing these distant southern lands were too difficult to govern directly from Delhi, he chose not to annex them. Instead, prioritizing their immense wealth to maintain his massive army, Khilji forced the defeated rulers to accept his suzerainty and pay an annual tribute.

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq dreamt of conquering the world. To fulfil this plan of conquests, he organised a huge army and paid one full year's salary in advance to his soldiers.

But the plan was not successful. After a year, following the failure of the token currency, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq abandoned the project and disbanded the army.

(a) The steps taken by Alauddin Khilji to regulate prices were:

1. He fixed the cost of all commodities such as foodgrains, sugar and cooking oil.
2. He set up three different markets at Delhi — one market for food grains, the second for costly cloth and the third for horses, slaves and cattle. Each market was put under the charge of a controller of market or Shahna.
3. There were strict punishments for cheating and underweighing goods.

(b) Alauddin Khilji had to face a series of rebellions from the nobles. That's why he took steps to crush their power. The methods adopted by Alauddin Khilji to crush the power of the nobility were:

1. The nobles were not allowed to hold functions or parties or to form marriage alliances without the permission of the Sultan.
2. The use of wine and intoxicants was banned.
3. Gambling was forbidden and gamblers were severely punished.
4. He started paying soldiers in cash instead of land.
5. He established an efficient spy system to keep a check on the activities of the nobles.

(c) The measures Alauddin Khilji took to increase the revenue were:

1. He brought all the land of the empire under his direct control.
2. He introduced the practice of measuring the land and fixed the state share accordingly.
3. He increased the state revenue from one-third to one-half.
4. He demanded the revenue in cash and not in kind.
5. He appointed special officers for revenue collection.

(a) Muhammad Bin Tughlaq shifted his capital from Delhi to Devagiri near Aurangabad and renamed it Daulatabad. He did this for following reasons:

1. His intention was to control Deccan from there as Daulatabad was centrally located.
2. Delhi was in grip of severe famine.
3. Delhi was constantly threatened by the Mongol invasions.

He ordered the people of Delhi including the religious heads to shift to Daulatabad. On realising the gravity of threat from north-west, he decided to shift the capital back to Delhi. This caused lots of hardships to the people.

(b) Introduction of token currency was one of the controversial steps taken by Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. There was shortage of silver, so Muhammad Bin Tughlaq introduced bronze Tankas in place of silver Tankas. But this experiment failed due to the circulation of counterfeit or fake coins on a very large scale, which caused a chaos in trade and commerce. Consequently, he withdrew the token currency.

(c) To fund his ambitions of conquering Central Asian territories, Muhammad bin Tughlaq increased taxes in the fertile Ganga-Yamuna Doab region to maintain a massive army. However, this coincided with a severe famine, leading to peasant rebellions when ruthless tax collectors showed no mercy. Many farmers abandoned their lands and fled to the jungles, causing a major setback to agriculture; though Tughlaq eventually launched relief measures, it was too late to prevent widespread starvation and death.

(a) Qutub-ud-din Aibak laid the foundation of this monument. It was completed by Iltutmish. It is situated in Delhi.

(b) It is named after Sufi Saint Qutub-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki.
The monuments of the Sultanate period reveal the cultural trends, the living conditions, faiths and beliefs of the period. They also reveal the socio-cultural outlook of the rulers.

(c) Four architectural features of the Qutub Minar are:

1. When originally completed, it rose to a height of 71.4 metres with four storeys. The tower was damaged due to lightning in 1369. Feroz Shah Tughlaq repaired it and rose its height further.
2. It has five storeys tapering as they ascend. Each storey is separated from the other by projecting balcony.
3. The base of the Minar has a diameter of 13.8 metres and the top of Minar has a diameter of 3 metres. It has a circular stairway of 379 steps leading to the top.
4. The projecting balconies are supported in such a way that the whole structure takes the load of the weight.

When I was transported back to Alauddin Khilji’s reign, I witnessed a highly controlled economic system. Khilji had divided the trade into three distinct, specialized markets: the Mandi for food grains, the Serai-i-Adl for expensive cloths and luxury goods, and a third market for horses, cattle, and slaves.

Prices were strictly fixed by the state based on production costs, leaving zero room for seller discretion. To enforce this, the markets were heavily policed by a superintendent (Shahna-i-Mandi), inspectors (Barids), and secret spies (Munhiyans). Punishments for cheating consumers were notoriously brutal. If a shopkeeper short-weighed a product, an equal amount of flesh was cut from his body to make up the difference.

Compared to modern times, Khilji's regulations were far more rigid and fear-driven. Today's market regulations are distinctly better because they are flexible, transparent, and balance consumer protection with business growth and innovation. Modern frameworks successfully adapt to complex global variables and crises, such as preventing price gouging during the COVID-19 pandemic, without resorting to physical violence. However, while our current system is fairer, it still needs strict enforcement changes to completely eradicate modern consumer fraud and black-marketing, areas where Khilji’s absolute deterrence was undeniably effective.

I met a person belonging to Mohammad Bin Tughlaq's reign and discussed with him, the shifting of capital. He told that the circumstances that forced the capital to be shifted from Delhi to Daulatabad were complex and multifaceted. The move was forced upon them by complex political and military factors.

It was very painful for him to leave his own place. He said that he was very attached to Delhi. But he had no choice because the Sultan (Mohammad Bin tughlaq) was very harsh on him and others. Although, Sultan had made arrangements for smooth shifting of people yet people suffered a lot as these arrangemets were not enough. The journey from Delhi to Daulatabad was long and arduous, and many people died on the way due to illness, hunger, and exhaustion. The person left behind his home, his belongings, and his community, to start afresh in a new place. The pain of exile was too much for him and others like him to bear.

Five

Reason — The Ain-i-Akbari, compiled by Abul Fazl, is organised into five books dealing respectively with the imperial household, the servants of the emperor and the civil and military services, the imperial administration, Hindu philosophy, science and literature, and the wise sayings of Akbar.

Taj Mahal

Reason — The Taj Mahal, built by Shah Jahan at Agra in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal, was declared one of the Seven Wonders of the World in 2007.

Jama Masjid

Reason — The Jama Masjid, built by Shah Jahan, is the biggest mosque in India. Its courtyard has the capacity to accommodate thousands of people at a time.

Buland Darwaza

Reason — The Red Fort complex houses the Diwan-i-Aam, the Diwan-i-Khas and the Moti Masjid (built later by Aurangzeb). The Buland Darwaza, however, stands at Fatehpur Sikri and does not form part of the Red Fort.

Battle of Haldighati : Humayun

Reason — The Battle of Haldighati (1576) was fought during the reign of Akbar between Maharana Pratap and the Mughal army led by Raja Man Singh, and not by Humayun.

Fatehpur Sikri

Reason — In 1575, Akbar built the Ibadat Khana or Hall of Prayer at Fatehpur Sikri, where he called selected theologians of all religions, mystics and intellectuals to discuss religious and spiritual matters.

Din-i-Illahi

Reason — Akbar promulgated a new faith called Din-i-Illahi, based on the principle of oneness of God.

zat and sawar

Reason — Under the Mansabdari system, the ranks were divided into two, namely zat and sawar. The zat fixed the personal status of a noble and the salary due to him, while the sawar indicated the number of cavalrymen he was required to maintain.

(A) is the reason for (R)

Explanation — India was divided into several regional kingdoms with no strong central authority. This fragmentation of power made it easier for Babur to conquer these kingdoms one by one.

(A) and (R) are independent of each other.

Explanation — The Taj Mahal is located in Agra on the banks of the Yamuna River, and Pietra dura is a method of inlay technique used for decoration in the Taj Mahal.

(R) is the reason for (A)

Explanation — Daulat Khan Lodhi, a governor of Punjab, invited Babur to India to oust Ibrahim Lodhi from the throne. This invitation led to Babur’s invasion of India and his victory over Ibrahim Lodhi at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526.

(A) is the reason for (R)

Explanation — The principle of Sulh-kul or universal harmony was a key aspect of Din-i-Illahi, and it was this principle that guided Akbar in establishing the faith.

Two important sources which provide information about the Mughals are:

1. Ain-i-Akbari — A set of five books written by Abul Fazal during reign of Akbar which provides information about the administration and culture of that period.
2. The Taj Mahal — Mausoleum of Mumtaz Mahal at Agra which provides information about architecture of Mughal period.

The author of Ain-i-Akbari was Abul Fazl.

Two books constituting Ain-i-Akbari are:

1. Manzil-Abadi
2. Sipah-Abadi

Daulat Khan Lodhi who was Governor of Punjab, invited Babur to India to oust Ibrahim Lodhi from the throne. Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in First Battle of Panipat and occupied Delhi and Agra.

The First Battle of Panipat (1526) was fought between Babur and Ibrahim Lodhi.

In this battle Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodhi and occupied Delhi and Agra.

The Battle of Haldighati was fought between Maharana Pratap, the ruler of Mewar and the Mughal army led by Raja Man Singh.

Maharana Pratap was defeated by Akbar at this Battle.

Two steps taken by Akbar to promote better understanding between the Hindus and the Muslims were:

1. Akbar abolished the poll tax or jizyah, which the non-muslims were required to pay. He also abolished the pilgrim tax on bathing at holy places such as Prayag and Benaras. Further, he abolished the practice of forcibly converting prisoners of war to Islam.
2. To strengthen the liberal principles, Akbar enrolled a number of Hindus into the nobility. While most of these were Rajput Rajas, many of whom entered into matrimonial alliances with Akbar, mansabs (position or rank) were given to others on the basis of their competence.

The two taxes abolished by Akbar were:

1. Poll tax (Jizyah).
2. Pilgrim tax.

Akbar's Din-i-Illahi promote the principle of oneness of God. The new religion stressed on virtues like courage, loyalty and justice. It also demanded loyalty to the Emperor. The basic purpose of forming Din-i-Illahi was Sulh-kul or universal harmony which governed all public policies of Akbar.

Akbar build the Ibadat Khana or the Hall of Prayer at Fatehpur Sikri to discuss religious and spiritual matters. He used to call selected theologians of all religions, mystics and intellectuals at Ibadat khana.

Two social reforms that were introduced by Akbar were:

1. Akbar raised the age of marriage to 14 for girls and 16 for boys.
2. Akbar legalised widow remarriage.

Mansabdars were officials holding a specific rank (mansab) within the Mughal grading system, which determined their position, military responsibilities, and salary. They formed the core elite of the empire's nobility, bureaucracy, and military hierarchy. For their services, they were paid through revenue-yielding land assignments called jagirs, from which their servants collected the designated revenue as their salary.

(a) Ain-i-Akbari — Ain-i-Akbari was a part of a large project of history writing commissioned by Akbar. Written by Abul Fazl, it is regarded as a precious source material for knowing the administration and culture during the reign of Akbar. The Ain-i-Akbari is divided into five books.

1. The first book deals with the imperial household.
2. The second book deals with the servants of the emperor, military and civil services.
3. The third book deals with the imperial administration. It consists of the regulations for the judicial and executive departments, and the division of empire.
4. The fourth book contains information about Hindu philosophy, science, social customs and literature.
5. The fifth book contains the wise sayings of Akbar. It also contains an account of the ancestry and biography of the author, Abul Fazl.

(b) Taj Mahal — It was built by Shah Jahan in memory of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal. It is mausoleum of both of them. It is built at Agra on the banks of the river Yamuna. It was designed by Ustad Isha Khan. It is made up of pure white marble. The main structure is constructed on a high platform. On each corner of this platform there is a minaret. The central dome rises to the height of 56.1 metres. The interior has an octagonal chamber with an inverted lotus ceiling. The actual graves are in lower chamber, underground. The walls of the entire structure are decorated with floral designs. The Taj Mahal brought together all the architectural forms developed by the Mughals like massive domes of marble, pietra dura (method of decoration) and kiosks (chhatris).

(c) Red Fort — The Red Fort was built by Shah Jahan on the bank of river Yamuna. Red sandstone and marble was used in its construction. The fort has massive walls and two gateways. The Western Gateway is known as the Lahori Gate. This gate was used for the emperor's ceremonial purposes. The campus has some impressive buildings like Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas and Moti Masjid. The Diwan-i-Khas is lavishly ornamented hall where the Peacock Throne was placed. The hall was used by the emperor to give audience to the princes of the royal family, nobles and other important dignitaries. The red fort is an important historical monument.

(a) Akbar's policy towards the Rajputs — The Rajput policy of Akbar proved to be one of his greatest achievements. He entered into marriage alliances with Rajputs. Bhara Mal, the ruler of Amber, married his younger daughter, Harkha Bai to Akbar. Akbar not only gave complete freedom to his wives who followed Hinduism but also gave an honoured place to their parents and relations in nobility. The Rajputs were also made equal partners in the Mughal government, it considerably affected the public policies of the Mughals and greatly helped in the growth of a composite culture. Thus, the Rajput policy of Akbar ended the centuries old animosity between the Muslim rulers and the Rajputs.

(b) Akbar's policy of religious tolerance — Akbar took a number of measures to promote greater understanding between the Hindus and the Muslims. The major steps taken by him were:

1. He abolished the poll tax or jizyah as well as pilgrim tax, which the non-muslims were required to pay.
2. He abolished the practice of forcible conversion of prisoners of war to Islam.
3. Akbar enrolled a number of Hindus into the nobility.
4. He built a hall called Ibadat Khana or the hall of prayer at Fatehpur Sikri. At this hall, he used to call selected theologians of all religions, mystics and intellectuals and discuss religious and spiritual matters with them.
5. Akbar issued a declaration or mahzar, making him the supreme or final arbiter in religious matters and replaced the power of Ulema by the power of the Emperor.
6. He promulgated a new faith called Din-i-Illahi. The basic purpose of forming it was universal harmony or Sulh-kul.
7. Akbar set up a big translation department for translating works in Sanskrit, Arabic and Greek into Persian. The books taken for translation were the Singhasan Battisi, the Atharva Veda, the Bible, the Quran, the Mahabharata, the Gita and the Ramayana.

(c) Social reforms introduced by Akbar — Akbar introduced a number of social and educational reforms which were pivotal in upliftment of women. Some of his reforms were:

1. He abolished the practice of forcible Sati. However, the women who committed Sati of their own free will were allowed to do so.
2. Akbar legalised widow remarriage.
3. Akbar was against anyone having more than one wife unless the first wife could not bear children.
4. He raised the age of marraige to 14 for girls and 16 for boys.
5. He revised the educational syllabus giving more importance to moral education, mathematics and secular subjects like agriculture, geometry, astronomy, logic and history.

(a) Introduced by Akbar, the Mansabdari system was a unique Mughal grading framework used to fix an officer's rank (mansab), salary, and military responsibilities. Spanning the entire nobility, bureaucracy, and military hierarchy, ranks ranged from 10 to 5000 for nobles. These official land-holders (mansabdars) did not reside in or govern their assigned lands; instead, they were paid through jagirs (revenue assignments), giving them rights solely to the collected revenue.

(b) The Mansabdari system was a grading system used by the Mughals to fix rank, salary and military responsibilities. These ranks were divided into two, namely Zat and Sawar. Zat fixed the personal status of a person and the salary due to him. The higher the Zat, the more prestigious was the noble's position in court and the larger his salary. The Sawar rank indicated the number of cavalrymen or sawar a mansabdar was required to maintain.

(c) Jahangir maintained the Mansabdari system developed by Akbar. But he reduced the average rate of Zat salary from Rs. 240 per annum to Rs. 200 per annum. Shah Jahan reduced the number of sawars a noble was requied to maintain. Thus, a noble was expected to maintain a quota of only one-third of his sawar rank and in some cases, one-fourth. During the reign of Aurangzeb, there was a huge increase in the number of mansabdars. These and other factors created a shortage in the number of jagirs.

(a) This fort was built by Shah Jahan. It is located in Delhi.

Its ceremonial importance in the present lies in the fact that the Prime Minister of India every year unfurls the national flag from its ramparts on Independence day (August 15).

(b) Three important buildings within the fort are:

1. Diwan-i-Aam
2. Diwan-i-Khas
3. Moti Masjid

(c) Two architectural features of the fort are:

1. The fort has massive walls and two gateways. The Western Gateway is known as the Lahori Gate.
2. Red sandstone and marble were used in its construction.

(a) The given picture is of Taj Mahal. It is located on the bank of river Yamuna in Agra. This monument is built of pure white marble.

(b) This monument was built by Shah Jahan.
Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal in memory of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal as her mausoleum.
The method of decoration of this monument is called pietra dura.

(c) The four features of this monument which reflect the Mughal style of architecture are:

1. The massive central dome of Marble.
2. Pietra dura inlay work.
3. Presence of kiosks (chhatris).
4. Presence of Minar.

When I visited Agra during the reign of Akbar, Agra had became the hub of trade and transformed into a grand city. It was a beautiful city where Hindus and Muslims lived in peace and harmony. This amicable relation was due to policies of Akbar. Akbar abolished laws that discriminated against non-Muslims. Akbar established separation of state and religion, and opened government positions to members of all religions. He abolished the poll tax (jizyah) on non-Muslims and the forced conversion of war prisoners. All these steps led to faith and belief of common people on Akbar and his administration. This further resulted in amicable relations among people and bond developed between Hindus and Muslims. I saw people of Agra, helping each other, participating in all festivals, doing businesses without any discrimination or hate between Hindu and Muslims.

I was made a Mansabdar during the reign of Akbar. Mansabdars form the ruling group in Mughal Empire. They are appointed by the King. I have to maintain cavalry men and horses. I have to get them registered. I received my salary as revenue assignments called Jagirs. I have the right to revenue of the Jagirs collected by servants.

Indo-Islamic Culture

Reason — The interaction of the Turks with the Indians, resulted in the development of a new composite culture, called the Indo-Islamic culture.

Caste division and ritualism

Reason — The Bhakti movement arose as a protest against the caste divisions and ritualism prevalent in Indian society.

Devotion to God

Reason — The word 'Bhakti' itself means devotion to God.

Importance of rituals

Reason — The Sufis preached religious tolerance, brotherhood, equality and the oneness of God, but held that God is reached through personal devotion and not through empty rituals.

All of the above

Reason — The principles of the Bhakti cult include that God is one and must be worshipped with love and devotion, that following the path of true devotion (Bhakti) leads to salvation, and that all are equal before God.

Rabab and Sarangi

Reason — When the Turks came to India, they brought with them new musical instruments like the rabab and sarangi along with new musical modes.

promotion of communal harmony

Reason — The Sufi movement fostered feelings of Hindu-Muslim unity and promoted tolerance, so that people irrespective of their religion began to understand and appreciate others' faith.

Khwajah Moinuddin Chishti

Reason — The dargah at Ajmer Sharief houses the tomb of Khwajah Moinuddin Chishti, who introduced the Chishti order in India.

Urdu

Reason — Urdu, a mixture of Persian, Arabic, Hindi and other regional languages, was originally known as 'Zaban-e-Hindvi' because its grammatical structure is similar to that of Hindi.

They started Anglo-Sanskrit schools in India.

Reason — There is no record of their starting Anglo-Sanskrit schools, so this statement is not correct.

(R) is the reason for (A)

Explanation — The interaction of the Turks with the Indians led to the development of a new composite culture, called Indo-Islamic culture. This new culture, influenced all aspects of life such as culture, art, architecture, and literature.

(A) and (R) are independent of each other

Explanation — Both statements are true. Kabir was born of a Brahmin widow and brought up by a Muslim weaver, Neeru, and his wife Neema, and he also wanted to transform society by promoting peace and harmony among different communities. However, (R) does not explain the fact of his birth and upbringing stated in (A); the two statements are independent of each other.

(R) is true but (A) is false.

Explanation — The dargah or shrine of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti is located at Ajmer in Rajasthan.

(R) is the reason for (A)

Explanation — The fusion of Indian and Islamic cultures in music was due to introduction of new instruments and impact of Turks.

(R) is the reason for (A)

Explanation — Bhakti movement indeed originated in India as a reaction against caste divisions and ritualism. Bhakti saints preached personal devotion to God as a means to reach God rather than the costly and complex rituals.

(R) is the reason for (A)

Explanation — Bhakti movement originated in India as a reaction against caste divisions and ritualism. Therefore, Bhakti saints tried to evolve a new social order based on equality and devoid of caste distinctions bringing in significant social changes.

(A) and (R) are independent of each other.

Explanation — The orders to which the Sufi saints who settled in India belonged, were the Chishti and Suhrawadi orders. The fundamental unity of all religions was the belief held by them.

The term composite culture refers to the culture that developed due to the interaction of the Turks and the Indians. This culture was neither purely Persian nor entirely Indian, but a fusion of the best elements of the two. This culture is also known as Indo-Islamic culture.

Two factors which promoted composite culture during the Mughal Age are:

1. The immense wealth and the unlimited power in the hands of the Mughal emperors enabled them to continue their patronage of fine arts and literature. They used their wealth to build palaces, forts and monuments.
2. The glorious and rich culture heritage of the Mughals on the one hand and Indians on other hand, created a unique atmosphere for the brilliant output of letters and fine arts.

The Bijak is the compilation of the verses of Kabir. Kabir was an oral poet, whose works were written by others. The Bijak is preserved by the Kabirpanthis (the followers of Kabir) in Varanasi and elsewhere in Uttar Pradesh.

Two sections into which Bijak is divided are:

1. Sakhi — composed in Doha or couplet form.
2. Ramaini — written in the form of chaupai and is usually based on musical raga.

Two teachings of Kabir are:

1. There is only one God. He may be worshipped under many names.
2. Devotion to God and good actions are only means of salvation.

Ajmer Sharief is the holy shrine of the sufi saint, Khwajah Moinuddin Chishti.

The main beliefs of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti were achieving oneness with God, devotion to the Divine, leading a pure life, showing compassion and charity for the helpless and poor.

Two doctrines of the Bhakti cult are:

1. God is one. He must be worshipped with love and devotion.
2. Guru, an enlightened teacher, is indispensable for realising God.

Sufism was a movement by Islamic sect that preached religious tolerance, brotherhood and oneness of God. The word 'Sufi comes from arabic word Suf meaning wool and was used for the mystics who used to wear only a coarse woollen garment.

Khwajah Moinuddin Chishti was one of the Sufi saints.

The two doctrines of Sufism are:

1. Individual soul is the manifestation of the supreme God and human soul will finally merge with it.
2. Fundamental unity of all religions.

Born in Spain in 1506, St. Francis Xavier became a priest in 1537 and arrived in Goa, India, in 1541 to begin his missionary work. For ten years, he relentlessly preached Christianity and cared for the sick until his death in 1552 during a voyage to China. His remarkably well-preserved, incorrupt body was brought back to India a year later and remains permanently enshrined in the Basilica of Bom Jesus in Goa.

(a) Equality of all human beings — Bhakti saints reformed Indian society by preaching universal brotherhood, enforcing the absolute equality of all men, and fiercely denouncing caste distinctions. By exposing the futility of empty rituals, the teachings of leaders like Kabir, Guru Nanak, and Ravidas dismantled the dominant authority of the priestly class to establish a more inclusive social order.

(b) Fostering unity and harmony between different communities — The Bhakti movement emphasised the essential unity of Islam and Hinduism, and laid stress on a religion based on love and devotion rather than one based on rituals. Thus, they created an atmosphere in Which liberal sentiments and views could grow and religious narrowness was shunned. They preached that the God is one and only the ways of worshipping him are different. The God must be worshipped with love and devotion.

(c) Promoting regional languages and devotional literature — The Bhakti movement played an important role in promoting regional languages and devotional literature. The Bhakti saints preached in the language of people. Languages like Hindi, Bhojpuri, Maithili and Oriya became popular. Among important literary works of this period were Ramcharit Manas by Tulsidas, Gurmukhi literature of the Sikh Gurus and the Vaishnava literature in Bengal. The local languages became even more popular by Bhakti saints like Mira Bai and Sant Janeshwar.

(a) Devotion to God — Sufi saints like Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti and Hazrat Nizamuddin, stressed love and good actions as means of realising God. According to Sufism one can reach God through personal devotion and not through empty rituals. The Doctrines of Sufism include that individual soul is manifestation of the Supreme God and human soul would finally merge with it. Also inner purity and self-discipline are essential for gaining the knowledge of God.

(b) Caste distinctions — Sufism was a liberal reform movement which created an atmosphere on which liberal sentiments and views could grow and narrowness of cast and religion was shunned. Equality and brotherhood of all human beings irrespective of caste, colour, creed was emphasised. Sufism basically freed people from the holds of age old rigid caste system.

(c) Unity of all religions — Sufism believed in fundamental unity of all religions. It insisted that the God is one and only he is worshipped under different names. They shunned all the rituals of different religions as according to them one can reach the God through personal devotion and not through empty rituals. Sufism fostered the feelings of Hindu-Muslim unity.

(a) Arriving in India in 1542, St. Francis Xavier spent his first five months preaching and caring for the sick, famously gathering children in the streets with a small bell to teach them Christian beliefs at local churches. Over the next decade, he worked relentlessly to spread the essentials of Christianity across India. Assisted by newly arrived Jesuit missionaries, he strategically expanded his network by stationing them at the principal mission centers he had established.

(b) To better connect with the Indian people, Christian missionaries published dictionaries and grammars of local languages and introduced Western music, dance, and arts in church schools. They became active patrons of painting, carving, and sculpture, introducing European architectural ideas through Portuguese churches and directly influencing Mughal art, as evidenced by Akbar and Jahangir's documented interest in Christian artwork. Ultimately, through their educational patronage and descriptive letters sent back home, the missionaries served as primary cultural interpreters who brought Indians and Europeans closer together.

(c) To establish effective communication, Christian missionaries compiled local grammars and dictionaries, highlighted by St. Francis Xavier's Malabar vocabulary, Thomas Stephens's Konkani grammar, and Diogo Ribeiro's texts. Beyond linguistics, church schools introduced Western performing arts while patronizing paintings and sculptures that directly influenced Mughal art. Crucially, the Portuguese Church provided India's earliest introduction to European architecture, debuting distinctive two-story structures featuring high-pitched roofs, balconies, and verandas.

The teachings of Kabir and Guru Nanak Dev promoted the feelings of peace and harmony among different communities. Their teachings advocated the unity of God and unity of mankind. They preached that the God can be worshipped under different names but there is only one God. They emphasised that good actions, meditation and devotion are only means of salvation. They were against the ritualism. Kabir had renounced idol worship, empty rituals, meaningless ceremonies etc. Guru Nanak believed that personal devotion to God could lead to salvation regardless of caste, creed or sect. Their teachings brought people of different religions closer. The people felt that they are free from obligations of religion and ritualism. Thus, the teachings of Kabir and Guru Nanak promoted the feelings of peace and harmony among different communities and thereby, strengthened the composite culture of India.

As the Secretary of the Students Wing of the RWA of my society, I would initiate following measures to strengthen the composite culture of India:

1. I would arrange for celebration of all festivals like Holi, Eid, Christmas, Diwali etc, together where people of all religions will get involved in celebration. Festivals are great way of strengthening bonds between the people.
2. I would make sure that no one is ignored or sidelined on any basis. Participation of all without any discrimination is important for strengthened composite culture of India.
3. National festivals can be celebrated in society with cultural programmes. Plays or programmes may be staged, teaching empathy & compassion, tolerance and acceptance.