The Harappan Civilisation

Chalcolithic Period

Reason — The period in which human beings used both stone and copper tools is called the Chalcolithic Period.

Culture

Reason — Archaeologists use the term culture for a group of distinctive objects, such as seals, weights, stone blades and baked bricks, usually found together within a specific geographical area and period of time.

There were public buildings for specific purposes.

Reason — The Citadel contained important buildings such as the Great Bath, the granary, the assembly hall and workshops. These buildings show that public structures existed for specific purposes in Harappan cities.

Presence of mud brick platform

Reason — The dockyard at Lothal was one of the oldest dockyards, was surrounded by a massive wall of baked bricks, and was connected by channels to the Gulf of Cambay. A mud brick platform was connected with the Citadel, not with the Dockyard. Hence, it is not a feature of the Dockyard at Lothal.

Both (1) and (2)

Reason — The Great Bath was made watertight by using burnt bricks and mortar lined with bitumen and gypsum.

All of the above

Reason — The Great Bath had a large rectangular tank in a courtyard, was surrounded by a corridor on all four sides, and had porticos and rooms around it. Hence, all the given options are its features.

lost wax process

Reason — Bronze statues were made by using the special lost wax process. In this method, wax figures were covered with clay, the wax was melted, and molten metal was poured into the hollow mould.

Written from right to left

Reason — The Harappan script was not alphabetical, as it had too many signs. It was written from right to left, as shown by the spacing on some seals.

All of the above

Reason — Harappan seals were made of terracotta, steatite, agate and similar materials.

society

Reason — Harappan seals provide information about the script, trade, religion and beliefs of the people. Society is not a direct source of information from seals.

a shawl

Reason — The Bearded Man from Mohenjo-daro is shown with a shawl worn over the left shoulder and half-closed eyes, as if in meditation.

heavily-bangled left arm

Reason — The Dancing Girl is a bronze statue from Mohenjo-daro. Her right arm rests on her hip and her left arm is heavily bangled.

(A) is true but (R) is false.

Explanation — The Harappan Civilisation, also known as the Indus Valley Civilisation, was a Bronze Age civilisation.

(A) and (R) are independent of each other

Explanation — The Harappan Civilisation is also known as the Indus Valley Civilisation because some important sites first excavated were located in the valley of the river Indus. This fact does not explain why it was the first civilisation in the north-western regions of the Indian subcontinent.

(R) is the reason for (A)

Explanation — Archaeologists use the term 'culture' for a group of distinctive objects found together within a particular geographical area and period. Seals, weights, stone blades and baked bricks are characteristic objects of the Harappans.

(A) and (R) are independent of each other

Explanation — The seals provide information about Harappan trade, religion, beliefs and art. Their script has not yet been deciphered, but this does not explain why seals are an important source of information.

(A) is true but (R) is false

Explanation — The water for the Great Bath was provided by a well in adjacent room.

(R) is the reason for (A).

Explanation — The massive structure of the Great Bath indicates the existence of a ruling class which could mobilise labour, collect taxes and build such a huge structure.

(A) is true but (R) is false

Explanation — The seals were mainly used by traders to stamp their goods.

(A) is true but (R) is false.

Explanation — Some scholars believe that the Bearded Man might represent a figure of authority, possibly a priest or yogi. The sculpture is of high artistic value.

(R) is the reason for (A)

Explanation — Lothal was a port city with a dockyard and was used for carrying out overseas trade.

(A) is true but (R) is false

Explanation — The houses of ruling class were built on a high mound to protect them from floods.

Two important sources of information about the Harappan Civilisation are:

1. The Great Bath, which indicates the high degree of perfection in the art of building.
2. The Citadel, which points to the planning and development of Harappan cities.

The Great Bath was an important public building of the Indus Valley Civilisation. It indicates the perfection achieved in the art of building, efficient planning of structures, and the social and religious development of the society.

Two important characteristic features of the citadel are:

1. Citadel was built on mud brick platform and hence it was a raised area.
2. Citadel had important buildings like the houses of ruling class, the great bath, the granary and the assembly hall.

The seals were used by the traders to stamp their goods. The goods were packed and tied and the knot was covered with wet clay and the seal was pressed on it.
Seals found in different regions show that Harappan trade had spread over a vast area.

The granaries at harappa were built on raised platforms to protect them from floods. There were two rows of six granaries each. To the south of granaries there were rows of circular floors which probably were working platforms for threshing. The granaries also had two-roomed barracks which possibly accommodated labourers. The granary had ventilation to prevent grains from becoming mildewed.

The bronze statue of the Dancing Girl was found at Mohenjo-daro. Her right arm rests on her hip, while her heavily-bangled left arm holds a small bowl against her left leg. It is a masterpiece of art and shows the vigour, variety and ingenuity of Harappan sculpture.

Two features of internal trade were:

1. Exchanges were carried out through the barter system.
2. Different towns specialised in particular products; for example, Lothal, Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were centres of metallurgy, while Balakot and Chanhudaro were centres of bangle-making.

Two evidences are:

1. Mesopotamian records from about 2300 BCE onwards refer to trade relations with Meluha, the ancient name for the Indus region.
2. Depictions of ships and boats on seals, and Mesopotamian references to Meluha as a land of seafarers, indicate overseas trade.

The four animals depicted on the Pashupati seal are an Elephant, a Tiger, a Buffalo and a Rhinoceros.

Two causes that led to the decline of the Harappan Civilisation were:

1. Floods and Earthquakes
2. Deforestation

The Indus people used a set of cubical stone weights. The basic unit was 16 (equal to 14 grams). Larger weights were multiples of 16 like 32, 48, 64, 128 and so on. The smaller ones were all fractions of 16.

Seals are valuable sources of historical information because:

1. Seals found in Mesopotamia show that the Harappans had contacts and trade relations with other civilisations.
2. The gods, symbols, animal figures and script on seals provide information about Harappan art, religion and beliefs.

Harappan Civilisation is our greatest heritage in the following respects:

1. Its methods of making baked pottery, bricks, beads, jewellery and textiles were adopted by later civilisations. Its cultivation of cotton was later adopted by the Egyptians.
2. Some religious practices, such as the worship of Pashupati Shiva, the Mother Goddess, sacred trees, animals, serpents and religious symbols, have continued to the present day.

Harappans produced characteristic pottery that was glossy and shining. Earthen vessels made on the potter's wheel were decorated with black geometrical designs. Large jars with narrow necks and red pots with black decoration show the potters' artistic skill.

The sculpture in metal was done through the special lost wax process. In this process wax figures were covered with a coating of clay. Then the wax was melted by heating and the hollow mould thus created was filled with molten metal which took the original shape of the object.

Harappan cities were divided into two parts: the raised citadel and the lower town. The citadel had the houses of the ruling class and important buildings such as the Great Bath, granaries, the assembly hall and workshops. The lower town had residential buildings where people lived and worked. This indicates political organisation and social classification.

(a) The structure is the Great Bath. Two of its characteristic features are:

1. It has a large rectangular tank in a courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all four sides.
2. Two flights of steps, one in the north and the other in the south, lead into the tank.

(b) The Great Bath is an important source of information about Harappan life and culture. Its design reflects efficient planning for water supply and drainage. Its massive structure also suggests the presence of a ruling class that could mobilise labour, collect taxes and construct large public buildings.

(c) The Citadel was another important architectural structure. It was a raised area on which important buildings, including the houses of the ruling class, the granary, the Great Bath and the assembly hall, were constructed. It shows social classification, urban planning and the advanced nature of Harappan Civilisation.

(a) Four important cities of the Harappan Civilisation and a significant feature of each are:

1. Harappa — It was situated on the left bank of the Ravi river and was an important centre of metallurgy.
2. Mohenjo-daro — It was situated on the right bank of the Indus river and is noted for its Great Bath and efficient drainage system.
3. Chanhudaro — Located about 130 km south of Mohenjo-daro, it was probably an industrial centre for bangle- and bead-making.
4. Lothal — Situated in Gujarat, it had a rectangular dockyard and was an important trading and manufacturing centre.

(b) It is called the Harappan Civilisation after Harappa, the first major site of this civilisation to be discovered in 1921. It is also known as the Indus Valley Civilisation because some important sites first excavated were located in the valley of the river Indus.

(c) Our knowledge is mainly based on archaeological sources because adequate written records are unavailable and the Harappan script has not yet been deciphered. Buildings, pottery, sculptures, seals and cemeteries therefore provide the evidence.

The Bearded Man is a stone sculpture from Mohenjo-daro. It is of high artistic value and shows the skill of Harappan artisans; some scholars consider it to be a yogi or priest. The bronze Dancing Girl is also a masterpiece of art. It shows the high development of sculpture and knowledge of the lost wax process.

(a) Three characteristic features of Harappan town planning were:

1. Each city was divided into the raised citadel and the lower town.
2. House drains emptied waste water into the street drains.
3. Streets crossed the main road at right angles, dividing the city into square or rectangular blocks.

(b) Three special features of houses were:

1. They had deep foundations and were built according to a set plan on high mounds to protect them from floods.
2. They were made of brick and wood and had doors, windows and ventilators; doors and windows opened on side streets, not main roads.
3. Their size varied from single-room tenements to larger houses with courtyards, up to twelve rooms, private wells and toilets. They had covered drains connected to street drains.

(c) Two common elements between Mohenjo-daro and Harappa were:

1. Both were located on river banks — Mohenjo-daro on the right bank of the Indus and Harappa on the left bank of the Ravi.
2. Both measured around 5 km in circuit.

(a) The given picture shows the Pashupati seal.
The seal depicts Pashupati Mahadeva shown as a three-faced deity wearing a buffalo-horned head-dress, seated cross-legged on a throne and surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a buffalo and a rhinoceros, with two deer at his feet.
The Pashupati seal reveals that Harappans believed in Shiva.

(b) These seal were made up of terracotta, steatite, agate etc.
These seals were used by traders to stamp their goods. After a bag of goods was tied, a layer of wet clay was applied on the knot, and the seal was pressed on it.

(c) The seals provide useful information about the script, trade, religion and beliefs of Harappans. It also shows the extent of trade in that region.

(a) The "Forgotten Age" refers to the Indus Valley Civilization, with Harappa and Mohenjo-daro being the Indian equivalents of the ancient cities of Tiryns and Mycenae.

(b) The Indus Valley Civilisation was revealed through the discoveries at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro by Archaeological Survey of India archaeologists Daya Ram Sahni and Rakhal Das Banerji. Sir John Marshall recognised the similarities in the finds and announced the discovery of the civilisation of the Indus Valley in The Illustrated London News.

(c) Its significance lies in its distinctive features:

1. Planned urban layout — Cities had grid-pattern roads, citadels and standardised bricks.
2. Efficient drainage — Covered house drains were connected to street drains.
3. Religious practices — Seals and figurines reflect the worship of deities, animals and nature.
4. Script and seals — Its undeciphered script and seals provide evidence of communication, religion and administration.
5. Art and craft — Fine seals, pottery, beads and sculptures show skilled craftsmanship.
6. Trade — Internal and overseas trade, including contact with Mesopotamia, reflects its economic development.

I would collect artefacts such as seals, weights, pots, toys and tools. I would study buildings and their possible uses, as well as the materials used to construct houses. Engraved walls, scripts and pictures would also be examined. Together, these sources would provide information about the civilisation and help trace its development.

The arrangement of granaries in rows, their ventilation, and the raised platforms suggest planned grain storage. Rows of circular brick platforms south of the granaries were probably used for threshing. Wheat and barley grains found in their crevices reveal the crops grown. Two-roomed barracks indicate the presence of labourers, while Harappa's location near the Ravi suggests that food grains may have been brought there by boat.

Similar features:

1. All these civilisations knew metallurgy.
2. They practised handicrafts and pottery-making.
3. Trade was common to all of them.

Dissimilar features:

1. Harappan town planning was especially distinctive.
2. Harappan cities had an excellent covered drainage system.
3. Brick-lined drains, brick-paved streets and manholes were features of Harappan cities.

The following features show that the Harappans were ahead of their time:

1. Grid-pattern streets — Streets were laid out in a planned grid.
2. Efficient drainage system — Houses were connected to covered drains and street drains.
3. Zoned city structure — Cities had a citadel and a lower town, showing organised planning.
4. Standardised bricks — Uniform bricks indicate technological advancement.
5. Water management — Wells and reservoirs provided water for daily use.