The First War of Independence (The Great Uprising of 1857)

The spread of Christianity by missionaries

Reason — The British encouraged Christian missionaries from Europe to spread Christianity in India. These missionaries often condemned Hindu and Muslim customs as outdated, hurting the sentiments of both the communities.

They were greased with cow and pig fat

Reason — A rumour spread that the cartridges were greased with the fat of the cow and the pig. Both the Hindu and the Muslim sepoys were enraged and thought that the English Government wanted to defile their religions.

The First War of Indian Independence.

Reason — The first and most important result of the Great Uprising of 1857 was that the hundred years old Company's Rule in India came to an end and the Government of India passed into the hands of the British Queen and the Parliament.

It promised non-interference in religious matters.

Reason — It was clearly stated in the Queen's Declaration of 1858 that there would be no interference in the religious beliefs and practices of the people and all would enjoy full freedom in this respect.

They would be allowed to retain their territories under British suzerainty.

Reason — Indian princes were assured that their kingdoms would never be annexed. The Doctrine of Lapse was given a final goodbye and the Indian rulers were allowed the right of adoption.

Establishment of the office of Secretary of State for India.

Reason — The Government of India passed into the hands of the British Queen and the Parliament, who appointed a Secretary of State for India to look after the administration of India.

(A) is the reason for (R)

Explanation — It was the peasantry that bore the heavy burden of taxes to provide money for the trade of the Company, the cost of administration and the wars of British expansion in India. Increase in land revenue forced many peasants into indebtedness and the traditional zamindars were replaced by merchants and moneylenders. Hence, the heavy taxation stated in (A) is the cause of the poverty and indebtedness stated in (R).

Import of British manufactured goods.

Reason — India became an importer of British made goods. As a result of the British policy of making India a raw material producing country, Indian handicrafts and cottage industries died out and thousands of craftsmen and artisans were thrown out of employment.

Due to alleged misgovernance by the Nawab of Awadh.

Reason — Awadh was annexed by Lord Dalhousie in 1856 on the pretext of alleged misrule by the Nawab.

The sepoys' mutiny in Meerut

Reason — Though the Great Uprising had many long-standing causes, it started as a Mutiny of Sepoys at Meerut on 10th May, 1857, from where it soon engulfed the whole of North India.

Lord Wellesley

Reason — The policy of Subsidiary Alliance was introduced by Lord Wellesley.

use of greased cartridges in Enfield rifles

Reason — It was rumoured that the greased cartridge had the fat of cow or pig. The sepoys felt that the introduction of greased cartridges were a deliberate move to defile Hindu and Muslim religions. So, the soldiers refused to use these cartridges and staged an uprising when they were forced to use them.

He was not a natural male heir to the throne.

Reason — Under the Doctrine of Lapse, if an Indian ruler died without a natural heir his kingdom would automatically lapse to the British. An adopted heir could not become the ruler of such a state, and so the Rani of Jhansi, Laxmi Bai, was not allowed to adopt a son.

The immediate cause of the Revolt of 1857 was the introduction of the Enfield rifle cartridges, which had to be bitten open before use. A rumour spread that they were greased with the fat of cows and pigs, offending both Hindu and Muslim sepoys. This led to widespread resentment and revolt.

Two impacts of the annexation of Awadh are:

1. Unemployment and loss of estates — Thousands of nobles, officials and soldiers lost their jobs, while many taluqdars and zamindars lost their estates.
2. Resentment among the sepoys — Many Bengal Army sepoys came from Awadh. Its annexation and the higher taxes imposed on their family lands created strong resentment against British rule.

Two leaders of the Revolt of 1857 from northern India were:

1. Bahadur Shah II (Bahadur Shah Zafar)
2. Nana Sahib

The last Mughal King, Bahadur Shah II (Bahadur Shah Zafar), was declared the Emperor of India and became the symbolic leader of the Revolt of 1857.

India's 'First War of Independence' is known as 'the Great Uprising of 1857'.

The policy of annexation followed by Lord Dalhousie was the Doctrine of Lapse.

The British introduced some reforms to improve the conditions of the people. But these were not welcomed by the majority of Indians and they felt that their sentiments were ignored. The 1829 Act abolishing Sati was regarded as an undue interference in the religion of the Indians. The two laws of 1832 and 1850, which permitted the Christian converts to inherit property, became very unpopular. The Widow Remarriage Act of 1856 offended the Indians and it was regarded as an infringement on their religious sentiments.

People believed that telegraph poles were erected to hang those who were against the British rule. Similarly, orthodox Indians noted that in the railway compartments the higher castes and the lower castes were made to sit side by side. So, the introduction of modern innovations like railways and telegraph were resented.

Oudh (Awadh) was annexed by Lord Dalhousie to the Company's dominions on the pretext of alleged misrule or misgovernance. On 7 February, 1856 Nawab Wazid Ali Shah was deposed and on February 13, the Court of Directors ordered complete annexation of Awadh.

Lord Canning passed the General Service Enlistment Act in 1856. It created bitterness among the sepoys as it bound them to be sent to fight even to an overseas front. The sepoys opposed this Act because it was contrary to their religious beliefs. The Act did not take into account the sentiments of Indian soldiers. The Brahmin soldiers saw in this a danger to their caste. This led to a feeling of resentment among them.

The economic exploitation at the hands of the British made my life very difficult as an artisan in the year 1856. Some of the difficulties I faced were:

1. British rule had a damaging effect on Indian handicrafts. Heavy duties were imposed on goods exported into England from India. On the other hand, the cheaper machine-made products were imported from Britain almost duty free. This forced me into unemployment.
2. Due to British economic policies, India became a source of raw material for the British industries and a market for its finished products. This destroyed the business of Artisans like me.

(a) The British government's attempt to interfere in the social and religious life of the Indians led to widespread fear among the masses.

1. Interference with Social Customs — Measures such as the abolition of Sati, Widow Remarriage Act and laws favouring converts created fear that the British intended to interfere with Indian religions.
2. Activities of Missionaries — Missionaries openly criticised Indian religions and promoted Christianity, creating suspicion among Hindus and Muslims.
3. Western education and modern innovations — Western education, railways and telegraphs were viewed with distrust and were feared as threats to traditional customs.
4. Racial Discrimination — The British considered themselves superior and often treated Indians with contempt, causing widespread resentment.

(b) The immediate cause was the introduction of the Enfield rifle cartridges, which had to be bitten open before use. A rumour spread that they were greased with the fat of cows and pigs, offending both Hindu and Muslim sepoys. Their refusal to use the cartridges and the punishment that followed sparked the revolt.

(c) The 1857 revolt had a far-reaching impact on British policies in India.

1. End of Company Rule — The rule of the East India Company ended, and India came directly under the British Crown through the Government of India Act, 1858.
2. Change in administration — The Governor-General also came to be known as the Viceroy, and a Secretary of State for India was appointed.
3. Policy towards princes changed — The Doctrine of Lapse was abandoned, treaties were respected and Indian rulers were allowed the right of adoption.
4. Army reorganised — The proportion of European soldiers was increased and artillery was largely kept under European control.
5. Divide and Rule — The British increasingly followed the policy of creating divisions among different communities.
6. Queen’s Proclamation, 1858 — It promised religious freedom and equal opportunity in government service, subject to qualification.

(a) The three administrative changes made in India as a consequence of the Revolt were:

1. Transfer of Power — The Government of India Act of 1858 transferred the control of India from the East India Company to the British Crown. The power to govern India was vested in the Crown through the Secretary of State who was responsible to the British Parliament.
2. Establishment of the Viceroy's Executive Council — In India, the Act of 1858 established an Executive Council, whose members would serve as heads of various departments and as official advisers to the Governor-General. The members of the Council occupied a position similar to that of Cabinet ministers.
3. Foreign Policy — India's foreign policy was dictated by the interest of the British government.

(b) The failure of the Revolt of 1857 had significant impacts on both the Mughals and the Peshwas:

• Mughals — The Mughal dynasty, which had been in decline since the death of Aurangzeb, came to an end with the Revolt of 1857. The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar II, was deported to Yangon in Myanmar. This marked the end of the Mughal rule in India.
• Peshwas — Nana Saheb, the last Peshwa, fled to Nepal after the failure of the uprising. This marked the end of the Peshwaship.

(c) Following are four significant changes were made in the Indian army after the Revolt of 1857:

1. Increase in European Troops — The number of British soldiers in the Indian army was increased. This was done to ensure the dominance of the European branch of the army.
2. Restructuring of the Artillery — The artillery, one of the most important branches of the army, was placed entirely in British hands.
3. Change in Recruitment Policy — Discrimination on the basis of caste, region and religion was practised in the recruitment to the army.
4. Isolating Indian army from Society — Newspaper, journals and nationalist publications were prevented from reaching the soldiers to keep the Indian army separated from the life of the rest of the population.

(a) Three economic causes for the revolt of 1857 are:

1. Exploitation of Economic Resources of India — The East India Company reduced agricultural India to an economic colony to serve the interests of industrial England. The Company purchased textiles, indigo, spices and tea from India and sold them abroad at exorbitant prices. It put restriction on the import of Indian textiles imposing heavy import duties on such goods.
2. Collapse of Indian Handicrafts — As a result of the British policy of making India a raw material producing country, Indian handicrafts and cottage industries died out. Important industrial towns such as Dhaka and Surat declined and thousands of craftsmen and artisans were thrown out of employment.
3. Economic Decline of Peasantry — It was the peasantry that bore the heavy burden of taxes to provide money for the trade of the Company, the cost of administration and the wars of British expansion in India. Increase in land revenue forced many peasants into indebtedness, and the new landowners pushed rents to exorbitant levels and evicted their tenants in case of non-payment.

(b) Three military causes of the revolt of 1857 are:

1. Ill-Treatment of Indian Sepoys — The Indian soldiers were considered inferior to the English soldiers and were treated with contempt by the British officers. During their training they were abused and kicked as if they were animals.
2. Inferior Status and Low Salaries — The wages of the Indian soldiers were too less to support their families. An English soldier was paid more than 8 times an Indian sepoy while their duties were of a similar nature. No Indian could rise higher than the post of Subedar.
3. General Service Enlistment Act (1856) — Lord Canning passed the General Service Enlistment Act. It created bitterness among the sepoys as it bound them to be sent to fight even to an overseas front. The sepoys opposed this Act because it was contrary to their religious beliefs.

(c) Three political causes of the revolt of 1857 are:

1. Doctrine of Lapse — Lord Dalhousie introduced the Doctrine of Lapse which implied that if an Indian ruler died without a natural heir, his kingdom would automatically lapse to the British. An adopted heir could not become the ruler of such a state. It led to the outright annexation of eight states, including Satara, Sambalpur, Jhansi and Nagpur. This made the Indian rulers hostile to the British.
2. Disrespect Shown to Bahadur Shah — The House of the Mughals was humbled when the English announced that after the death of Bahadur Shah II, the Mughals would lose the title of kings and his successors would have to vacate the Red Fort. The increase in the disrespect shown by the English to the Emperor increased the aversion of the Indians for the British.
3. Annexation of Awadh — In 1856, Lord Dalhousie annexed Awadh to the Company's dominions on the pretext of alleged misrule or misgovernance. The British seemed to have broken promises and pledges made to the ruling chiefs. This caused resentment among the Indians, particularly in Awadh.

(a) The immediate cause of the First War of Independence was the introduction of the Enfield rifle. The loading process of the Enfield rifle involved bringing the cartridge to the mouth and biting off the top greased paper with the teeth.

In January 1857, there was a rumour in the Bengal regiments that the greased cartridge had the fat of cow or pig. The sepoys were now convinced that the introduction of greased cartridges was a deliberate move to defile Hindu and Muslim religions. So, the soldiers refused to use these cartridges and staged an uprising when they were forced to use them.

(b) Three political causes of the First War of Independence were —

1. Policy of Expansion — The British policy of territorial expansion and gradual annexation of the native Indian states was one of the major grievances of the Indian rulers.
2. Absentee Sovereignty of the British — Indians felt they were being ruled from England and India's wealth was drained to England and not utilised for their welfare.
3. Treatment given to Nana Saheb — Nana Saheb was the adopted son of Baji Rao II, the last Peshwa. The British refused to grant Nana Saheb the pension they were paying to Baji Rao II. This treatment was widely resented in the Maratha region. Nana Saheb sent emissaries to different parts of the country for generating awareness among the Indians about the British policies. Nana Saheb also traveled - between Delhi and Lucknow to gather support for the movement.

Other Indian rulers, who were not adversely affected, also became suspicious of their future.

(c) The India army was reorganised after 1858, to prevent the reoccurrence of another uprising, in the following manner:

1. The strength of European troops in India was increased. The ratio of European to Indian troops was fixed at 1:2 (Bengal army) and 2:5 (Madras and Bombay armies). Practically the same ratio was maintained till the First World War. The general principle adopted was that the number of Indian sepoys should not exceed twice that of the European troops.
2. European troops were kept in key geographical and military positions.
3. To desist the Indian soldiers from rising again against the British rule, the sophisticated weapons and ammunition were never placed under the charge of Indians. All Indian artillery units, with the exceptions of a few mountain units, were disbanded.
4. Newspapers, journals and nationalist publications were prevented from reaching the soldiers to keep the Indian army separated from the life of the rest of the population.

(a) According to Doctrine of Lapse, if an Indian ruler died without a male heir his kingdom would come under the Company's territory in India. It was introduced by Lord Dalhousie.

(b) Three socio-religious causes that show that the British Government interfered in the social and religious matters of the Indians are:

1. The reforms like the Abolition of Sati (1829), the introduction of the Widow Remarriage Act (1856) and the opening of Western education to girls were not welcomed by the masses.
2. In the 19th century, the British began to interfere with the local religious and social customs. They denounced idol worship and dubbed local beliefs as ignorance. The Indians did not like this interference in their religious matters.
3. Religious sentiments of the Indians were hurt by the official policy of taxing lands belonging to the temples and mosques.

(c) Four military causes that led to the Great Uprising of 1857 were:

1. Ill-treatment of Indian soldiers — Indian soldiers were poorly paid, ill-fed and badly housed. British military authorities forbade the sepoys from wearing caste or sectarian marks, beards or turbans; and they showed disregard for the sentiments of the sepoys.

2. General Service Enlistment Act (1856) — As per this Act, Indian soldiers could be sent overseas on duty. The Act did not take into account the sentiment of the Indian soldiers. This led to a feeling of resentment among them.

3. Lower Salaries — The wages of the Indian soldiers were inadequate to support their families. On the other hand, the British soldiers received more than eight times the salary of the Indian soldiers.

4. Bleak Prospects of Promotion — No Indian soldier could rise above the rank of a Subedar. All high positions were reserved for the British soldiers only.

(a) The given personality is Lord Dalhousie.

The policy introduced by him was the Doctrine of Lapse. It implied that if an Indian ruler died without a natural heir, his kingdom would automatically lapse to the British. An adopted heir could not become the ruler of such a state. It led to the outright annexation of eight states, including Satara, Sambalpur, Jhansi and Nagpur. This made the Indian rulers hostile to the British.

(b) The political causes of the first war of Independence 1857 are:

1. Discontent of the Ruling Sections — The East India Company was no longer satisfied only with earning profits in trade. They aimed to assume political power and openly interfered in political and internal matters. They introduced various methods of annexation such as Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse. These alarmed the Indians who felt unsafe from the growing British Power.
2. Disrespect Shown to Bahadur Shah — The House of the Mughals was humbled when the English announced that after the death of Bahadur Shah II, the Mughals would lose the title of kings and his successors would have to vacate the Red Fort. The increase in the disrespect shown by the English to the Emperor increased the aversion of the Indians for the British.
3. Ill-Treatment of Nana Sahib and Rani of Jhansi — The English refused to acknowledge Nana Sahib, the adopted son of the last Peshwa Baji Rao II, as the ruler of the Marathas. The Rani of Jhansi, Laxmi Bai, was also not allowed to adopt a son. They became sworn enemies of the English.
4. Annexation of Awadh — In 1856, Lord Dalhousie annexed Awadh on the pretext of alleged misrule or misgovernance. Nawab Wazid Ali Shah was deposed. The British seemed to have broken promises and pledges made to the ruling chiefs, which caused resentment among the Indians, particularly in Awadh.
5. Absentee Sovereignty of the British — India was being ruled by the British Government from England, at a distance of thousands of miles. The Indians felt that India's wealth was being drained to England and not utilised for their welfare.
6. Other Factors — The British declined to honour the pledges and treaties made with native princes. Indians were treated with contempt and were excluded from every sphere of the administration. With the defeat of the British Army in the first Afghan war, the myth of British supremacy was shattered.

(a) The queen in the given picture is Queen Victoria. From 1858, Queen Victoria became the ruler of India.

Two policies towards the Indian Princes and Chiefs are:

1. Accepting the Previous Treaties — The British Government fully realised that the Great Uprising had broken out mainly due to the discontent caused by their aggressive policies towards the Indian princes. Therefore, they decided to honour all the treaties entered by the Indian rulers with the East India Company. In this way they tried to win back the trust of the princes.
2. Change in Policy towards the Indian States — To win back the confidence of the native princes, the English switched over to the policy of subordinate union instead of the earlier policy of subordinate isolation. Indian princes were assured that their kingdoms would never be annexed. The Doctrine of Lapse was given a final goodbye and the Indian rulers were allowed the right of adoption. However, the number of Indian soldiers in their armies was restricted and they were forbidden to enter into any relations with any native or foreign power without the consent of the British Government.

(b) Three policies regarding military administration or reorganisation of the army are:

1. Amalgamation of Troops of the Crown and the Company — Since 1784 when Pitt's India Act was passed, the Company had two categories of European troops — one that were recruited from among the European settlers in India by the Company itself and the other were those recruited directly by the British Government in England and sent to serve in India. These were amalgamated after the Uprising.
2. Increase in the Number of European Troops — At the time of the Great Uprising the number of European soldiers was far less than the number of Indian troops. After the Uprising it was laid as a principle that in no case would the number of the Indian sepoys exceed twice that of the European troops. The new army consisted of about 72,000 Europeans and 1,35,000 Indian troops.
3. Placing Artillery and Other Effective Weapons Exclusively in European Hands — After the Uprising, Indian officers were never placed in charge of ammunition, nor were they allowed to use more sophisticated weapons of war. It was done primarily to desist the Indian soldiers from harbouring any design of breaking out in rebellion.

(c) Four changes introduced in the administration are:

1. End of the Company's Rule — The hundred years old Company's Rule in India came to an end. The Board of Control was abolished and the Board of Directors was stripped of all its powers. The Government of India passed into the hands of the British Queen and the Parliament, who appointed a Secretary of State for India to look after the administration of India.
2. The Secretary of State and his Council — The Secretary of State of India was a member of the British Cabinet. A 15 member Council, eight of whose members were appointed by the Queen and seven by the Directors of the Company, was constituted to aid and advise the Secretary of State. His office was in London but all his expenditures were met by the Indian Government.
3. Change in the Designation of the Governor-General — With the transfer of the Government from the hands of the Company to those of the Crown, the designation of the Governor-General was also changed. While he remained the Governor-General for the provinces under his rule, he came to be known as the Viceroy while dealing with the Nawabs and the Rajas and other native princes.
4. Accepting the Previous Treaties — The British Government decided to honour all the treaties entered by the Indian rulers with the East India Company. In this way they tried to win back the trust of the princes.